Political and Military: 1801 ~ 1820 By: Amberley Bailey
Adams's "Midnight Judges" Upset Jefferson
Before John Adams left his presidency, he saw to it that the Judiciary Act of 1801 was passed, reducing the number of Supreme Court Justices from six to five, and threatening to strip Jefferson of an early opportunity to appoint a justice. The Act also created 16 new judgeships--lifelong jobs--of which Adams filled with last minute ("midnight") appointments of Federalists. However, Jefferson fought back, and won congressional appeal of the act in 1802. One of the more famous midnight appointments was that of Marbury. Adams appointed him as Justice of the Peace in Washington, D.C., but failed to deliver the commission before midnight. Jefferson refused to honor the almost-scandalous appointment of another Federalist, and Marbury brought it to court. In the Supreme Court Case Marbury v Madison (1803), Chief Justice John Marshall (Federalist) wrote the unanimous opinion that although Madison should have delivered Marbury's commission, he was under no legal obligation to do so. However, Marshall took the opportunity to lecture Madison on his moral duty, believing that Marbury should have been commissioned. Marbury v Madison was a very important Supreme Court case because it established judicial review.
Aaron Burr Conspiracy
Aaron Burr aligned himself with Wilkinson, the military governor of the Louisiana Territory, in an effort to separate western states from the Union and Mexico (from the Spaniards) to form an independent confederacy--all while Burr was Vice President. In the fall of 1806, Jefferson found out and denounced the conspiracy. Burr tried to escape, but was intercepted; however, he could not be found guilty of treason since the plan fell apart before it was accomplished. To escape conviction after killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, he fled to Europe. Depicted above are newspaper articles which followed Burr's trial from February to September of 1807.
Supreme Court Backs Dartmouth
In 1769, King George III of England granted a charter to Dartmouth College. Since charters were contracts, they could not be interfered with by the legislature. However, in 1815, the New Hampshire legislature passed an act that amended the charter--wanting to transform the private corporation into a state university--and established a board of overseers to replace the board of trustees. When the trustees sued, they lost in the state court. The trustees, represented by Daniel Webster, then took the case to the Supreme Court, which ruled that the federal Constitution prohibited states from altering contracts. The decision in Dartmouth College v Woodward case protected businesses and corporations from a lot of government regulation. Moreover, Marshall said that once the state had chartered the college or business, it surrendered its power to alter the charter as well as its authority to regulate the beneficiary.
SUPPORT THE NATURALIZATION ACT OF 1802 ~And the~ RETURN TO 5 YEARS OF RESIDENCY TIL YOU BECOME A CITIZEN
The Louisiana Purchase, 1803
The Louisiana Purchase was made in 1803 under the Jefferson administration, nearly doubling the size of the United States. For $15 million, the US gained the uncharted territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Depicted above is a map showing the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.
FOR SALE: Federal Land in Ohio 80 Acre Minimum $1.25 Per Acre
~Land Act of 1820~
War Returns After 29 Years of Peace
The War of 1812, also known as "Madison's War", was the first war the US participated in in 29 years. Although provoked by British attempts to restrict U.S. trade, the Royal Navy's impressment of American seamen, and U.S. desire to expand its territory, the kindle that lit the fire was the election of war hawks (youngfolk eager for war) to Congress in 1810. The most famous war hawks were the Great Triumpherant: Calhoun (SC), Clay (KY), and Webster (MA); they were representative of the entire country. The United States suffered a few severe blows from the War of 1812. The most memorable was when British, Canadian and Native American troops marched on Washington, D.C., in 1814 and burnt the Executive Mansion (which was later rebuilt and painted white, giving it the name "White House"). The War of 1812 was resolved by the Treaty of Ghent (December 1814), which restored the status quo of Antebellum in the United States. However, since it took so long for news to travel in this era, battles continued to be fought after the war's technical end. In January 1815, the US won its most prominent battle, the Battle of New Orleans (note that it was after the war). The inferior American forces, led by General Andrew Jackson, beat the superior Great Britain forces, and stirred up nationalism and pride in the hearts of Americans. News of this victory arrived in Washington, D.C., the same day as the Federal Hartford Convention send men to D.C., asking for the war to end. (The Hartford Convention summarized New England's grievances, at the heart of which lay that they were becoming a minority in a nation dominated by Southern Republicans who didn't understand their commercial interests. Their goals were to assert states' rights, threatening secession.) Of course, the gallant news of the Battle of New Orleans--an American victory led by General Andrew Jackson--overshadowed the Hartford Convention, which had little effect. Although the Treaty of Ghent left many questions unresolved, the US saw the War of 1812 as a "second war of independence" since it fought once again against Britain's bullying in the Atlantic.
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Harrison Defeats Indians at Tippecanoe
Two Shawnee Indians, Tecumseh and the Prophet, were brothers who tried to rid the white men from settling on their land. According to the Prophet, the Master of Life had told him that if all the Indians would reject white customs and return to traditional ways, then they would be blessed with the white men being driven from their land. Tecumseh believed that if the Indians set aside their differences and worked together, they could accomplish the same goal. The two movements became intertwined, and they taught their beliefs at Prophetstown, near the Tippecanoe River (in the Indiana Territory). By 1811, the white men that had settled near Prophetstown felt threatened by the large population of Indians, and petitioned the U.S. government to do something to protect them. William Henry Harrison, the governor of that territory (and future president of the United States) led an army to Prophetstown but stopped short of the village. While Tecumseh was away, the Prophet called Indians to attack their camp, claiming that the Master of Life had told him to do so, and that they would succeed. At dawn on November 7, 1811, the Indian forces led by the Prophet attacked the Harrison's camp. The Americans fought the Indians and defeated them, but in the process had 62 casualties and 126 wounded. (The Indians casualties were unknown.) The Americans also burned Prophetstown. Tecumseh's Confederation was weakened after the battle, and the Prophet was seen as a liar for his claims of invincibility. Harrison became known as "Old Tippecanoe" (which he would later use as his slogan--"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too"--for his 1840 Election).